What is aldosterone Aldosterone is a steroid hormone produced in the adrenal gland, the adrenal gland, from cholesterol. It is the main hormone produced in the first part of the cortical portion of the adrenal gland, called the glomerular zone. What aldosterone is used for: metabolism and functions Unlike most of the cortical tissue of the ...
Ferritin: normal, high and low values What is ferritin? S-ferritin is a protein contained mainly in the following organs: liver, spleen, skeleton and bone marrow. Ferritin can contain up to 4,500 iron ions, in the state of ferrous ion (Fe3 +). It represents the main form of deposit of ...
¿Qué es RDW? What does RDW mean? RDW means Red Cell Distribution Width (Ancho de distribución de glóbulos rojos) and indicates the amplitud de la distribución de los erythrocitos. It represents one of the parámetros del conteo sanguíneo, que es el análisis de sangre más clásico. ¿Para qué sirve RDW? El ...
What is RDW? What does RDW mean? RDW stands for Red Cell Distribution Width, and indicates the width of the erythrocyte distribution. It represents one of the parameters of the blood count, that is the most classic blood test. What is RDW used for? The RDW allows to evaluate the degree of anisocytosis, that is the variations of the ...
What is FSH? What does FSH stand for? FSH, whose acronym means follicle stimulating hormone, is a gonadotropin, a hormone involved in the regulation of both female (ovary) and male (testes) gonads and, more generally, of the reproductive system. FSH is not the only gonadotropin, in fact, it acts together with LH (luteinizing hormone). These...
What is rheumatoid factor Rheumatoid factor (abbreviation FR) is an antibody, that is a glycoprotein produced by plasma cells, so called because it is often associated with rheumatoid arthritis (autoimmune disease frequent in women). Antibodies, or immunoglobulins, are small symmetrical glycoproteins, composed of four two-by-two symmetrical peptide chains ...
What is pneumococcus or streptococcus pneumonie? Pneumococcus, or streptococcus pneumoniae, is a Gram positive bacterium, one of the most frequent pathogenic bacteria for humans, responsible for pneumonia and meningitis. What does Gram-positive mean? Human pathogenic bacteria are classified in many ways; one of them is coloring ...
What is troponin Troponin is a protein complex that constitutes the heart and skeletal muscle, in fact the smooth muscle lacks it. The troponin complex is critical for the actin-myosin mediated calcium interaction underlying muscle contraction. Troponin is defined as cardiac enzyme, cardiac marker or index of myocardiocytolysis, ...
PSA - Prostate Specific Antigen What is PSA? Prostate Specific Antigen - or PSA, Prostate Specific Antigen - is a glycoprotein produced exclusively by the cells of the prostate gland and secreted into seminal fluid. Its function is to liquefy the seminal fluid more, to allow the spermatozoa a ...
Platelets (also called thrombocytes or PLT) are corpuscular elements of the blood that are responsible for blocking blood loss in case of vascular lesions through the process of haemostasis and coagulation. What are platelets? Platelets, with an average life of 10 days, are produced ...
Homocysteine What is homocysteine? What is homocysteine? Homocysteine is an amino acid obtained from methionine, through a process of demethylation (loss of a methyl group). Methionine is also a sulfur amino acid, called essential, as the body is unable to synthesize it. The importance of methionine is closely associated with ...
LDH - Lactic dehydrogenase What is lactic dehydrogenase (LDH)? Lactic dehydrogenase or lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme involved in the metabolism of glucose, a carbohydrate essential for the functioning of our body. It is localized in different tissues, but mainly at the level of: skeletal muscles in the liver ...
Lipases What are lipases? Lipases are hydrolytic enzymes that mediate the breakdown (hydrolysis) of dietary lipids. Triglycerides are thus broken down by lipases into fatty acids and glycerol; some of the intermediate metabolites of this process are diglycerides (or diacylglycerol) and monoglycerides (or monoacylglycerol). What are lipids? Lipids are fundamental molecules for ...
Amylases What are amylases? Amylases are enzymes involved in the breakdown process of carbohydrates. They are divided into salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase. The first, produced by the salivary glands, represents about 60% of the total, the second, typically pancreatic, represents about 40%. Salivary amylase has a fleeting action, as it comes early ...
High Potassium or Hyperkalaemia The finding of high potassium in the blood is defined by the scientific terms of hyperkalaemia or hyperkalemia. The causes are many and range from an increased intake of potassium in the diet, to a reduced elimination of potassium in the urine, to an exaggerated release of potassium ...
Hyponatremia or hyponatremia The finding of low sodium in the blood takes the scientific name of hyponatremia or hyponatremia. Sodium is a mineral salt, and is the main ion present in the bloodstream. The presence of a reduced sodium may be caused by a reduced sodium intake or, ...
Anemia is a very common condition. The diagnosis is made through the analysis of the blood count: the finding of low hemoglobin, low red blood cells or low hematocrit on blood tests means suffering from anemia. The main causes of anemia are macrocytic and iron deficiency anemias, hemoglobinopathies such as thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. The main symptoms of anemia are skin paleness, fatigue ...
The finding of low neutrophilic granulocytes (more properly: low granulocytes or neutropenia) is not uncommon, and is often accompanied by the presence of low leukocytes (leukopenia), since neutrophils are the main components of white blood cells together with lymphocytes. The causes of low neutrophils are mainly disorders of bone marrow production, neoplasms, but also drugs, acute inflammatory states and ...
Albumin is the main protein produced by the liver, and it is a very important substance for the body. Albumin has many functions including the maintenance of oncotic pressure (avoiding water retention and declining edema), the transport of waste substances, hormones, drugs and many other metabolites, the maintenance of a Ph ...
High urea or uremia Very often we hear about urea, which is a parameter that must be kept under control in order to evaluate the correct functionality of the kidneys. In fact, doctors frequently recommend urea analysis which is a test of fundamental importance to evaluate the correct functioning of the kidneys. Important feature ...
The monotest is a rapid test for the diagnosis of mononucleosis, an infectious disease caused by the Epstein Barr virus (EBV). A positive monotest, in the presence of typical symptoms such as fever, loss of appetite and swollen lymph nodes, is highly indicative of the presence of mononucleosis.
High hemoglobin is a frequently found finding in blood tests. The finding of elevated hemoglobin values is associated with a state of dehydration, the presence of chronic lung diseases or the use of erythropoietin-based substances in athletes.
Hemoglobin is a substance contained in red blood cells, absolutely essential for life, as it absorbs the oxygen introduced into the body with breathing, and transports it to the organs that use it for energy.
The finding of high blood glucose is a frequent finding, especially in adults or the elderly. Having high fasting blood glucose values does not automatically mean being diabetic, even if it is an alarm bell that must lead to further investigation. The main causes of hyperglycemia are type 2 diabetes mellitus ...
BUN indicates the amount of nitrogen present in the blood. The causes of high blood urea are mainly acute and chronic renal failure and the presence of a high-protein diet. The most frequent symptoms of azotemia are fluid accumulation, fatigue and lack of appetite.
Microalbuminuria means the presence of a fair amount of albumin in the urine. The finding of microalbuminuria does not indicate the presence of severe kidney damage, but it is still an alarm bell regarding the state of health.
Uric acid is a substance present in our blood, which derives from the degradation of nitrogenous bases, the building blocks of the DNA present in our cells, like all animal or plant cells. The term uricemia indicates the concentration of uric acid in the blood. The main causes of acid ...
Low uric acid is rare and usually not of concern. The main causes of reduced uric acid are increased renal elimination, often due to concomitant drug therapy, or reduced urate production due to rare genetic disorders, particular drugs or ...
Bilirubin is a waste substance of the body, which results from the breakdown of hemoglobin. A high bilirubin can result from the presence of problems with the liver (hepatitis, cirrhosis) or with the biliary tract (obstruction or infection of the gallbladder and bile ducts, causing direct hyperbilirubinemia). An increase in indirect bilirubin on the other hand is frequently ...
The finding of low hemoglobin on blood tests means suffering from anemia. Hemoglobin is essential for carrying oxygen from peripheral blood to body tissues. The main causes of low hemoglobin are macrocytic and iron deficiency anemias, hemoglobinopathies such as thalassemia and sickle cell anemia. The main symptoms of ...
Albumin is a protein produced by the liver, it has important functions such as maintaining the balance of body fluids and transporting substances in the blood. The finding of low albumin (hypoalbuminemia) is usually indicative of malnutrition or liver or kidney disease. The symptoms of low albumin are manifold, including edema, decline ...
The finding of high prolactin on blood tests is a condition called hyperpolactinemia. The main symptoms of high prolactin are galactorrhea and decreased sexual desire in men, and infertility in women. The causes of high prolactin are related to the presence of a pregnancy or a pituitary adenoma that produces ...
Low lymphocytes or lymphopenia: main symptoms and causes The finding of low lymphocytes (lymphopenia or lymphocytopenia) is less common than lymphocytosis. Causes of low lymphocytes can be abnormalities of bone marrow function, tumors, numerous drugs, the presence of an acute inflammatory state or infections, especially viral ones. Symptoms of ...
Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell, which increases in the blood mainly due to infections, especially viral infections, and during hematological diseases. Symptoms of elevated lymphocytes are related to the underlying disease that caused the biohumoral alteration.
Thyroglobulin (Tgb or Tg) is a glycoprotein that is produced by thyroid cells, and is a precursor substance for the synthesis of the hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It is used, like calcitonin, as a tumor marker for thyroid cancer. The finding of low thyroglobulin is from ...
Thyroglobulin (Tgb or Tg) is a glycoprotein that is produced by thyroid cells, and is a precursor substance for the synthesis of the hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It is used, like calcitonin, as a tumor marker for thyroid cancer.
The finding of high white blood cells (more properly: high leukocytes, high WBCs or leukocytosis) is very frequent, and is often linked to the presence of an infectious state or blood diseases. The causes of high leukocytes are in fact above all states of inflammation secondary to bacterial, fungal, viral infections ...
The finding of low ESR is less frequent than the finding of high ESR. The main causes of low ESR are dehydration, increased blood density due to the presence of a high number of red blood cells in the blood, a reduction in the protein concentration in the blood or an allergic state. The main symptoms of reduced ESR are those related ...
The finding of low white blood cells (more properly: low leukocytes, low WBC or leukopenia) is not uncommon, and is often linked to the presence of neutropenia (low neutrophil granulocytes). The causes of low leukocytes are disorders of bone marrow production, neoplasms, but also numerous drugs, acute inflammatory states and infections, especially ...
The finding of high ESR is indicative of an ongoing inflammatory state. The main causes of high ESR are infectious, autoimmune, rheumatological diseases and everything that increases the state of inflammation of our organism. The main symptoms of high ESR are fever, joint pain, sweating and all symptoms ...
Aspartate aminotransferase (AST or GOT) is an enzyme found mainly in the liver and kidneys. The finding of elevated AST in the context of high transaminases is indicative of the presence of liver damage.
The finding of high triglycerides is a worrying fact, which must be corrected as soon as possible to avoid the onset of cadiovascular and metabolic diseases. Triglycerides are fatty substances used as a source of energy and in the metabolism of cells. The main causes of high triglycerides are the type of diet and ...
The finding of low triglycerides is less frequent than the finding of high triglycerides. Triglycerides are fatty substances used as a source of energy and in the metabolism of cells. The main causes of low triglycerides are usually a state of malnutrition or malnutrition, more rarely it depends on liver disease or ...
High creatinine High creatinine or hypercreatininemia is often a symptom of renal failure, which can be acute or chronic. The main causes of high creatinine are the presence of hypertension, diabetes, dehydration or the use of substances harmful to the kidneys. Symptoms of elevated creatinine are ...
Alanine aminotransferase (ALT or GPT) is an enzyme protein found mainly in the liver and kidneys. The finding of elevated ALT and therefore of high transaminases is often suggestive of a liver problem.
The finding of low eosinophils is normally linked to a state of immunosuppression, that is, to a reduction in the function of the immune system. The most frequent causes of low eosinophilic granulocytes are the use of drugs (cortisone or chemotherapy for all) or the presence of bone marrow diseases.
The finding of high C reactive protein or high CRP is due to the presence of an inflammatory process in our body, and is therefore defined as an acute phase protein. The analysis of the C reactive protein, together with the ESR and procalcitonin, is then carried out to look for the presence of inflammation (phlogosis) that can ...
Creatinine is a protein that represents the waste product resulting from the normal breakdown of muscle tissue. Creatinine is filtered through the kidneys and excreted in the urine. The finding of low creatinine in the blood often indicates a reduced muscle mass. A low creatinine then goes ...
The Prik Test is an intradermal reaction test: it is a method for the routine diagnostics of allergies from inhalants, foods, drugs and insect poisons.
Proinsulin is a protein produced by the pancreas, and is the precursor of insulin, a very important protein for the use of sugars in our body.
Antibodies to Toxoplasma, called by the abbreviation Toxo-test, are antibodies aimed at parts of Toxoplasma Gondii, an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite capable of infesting humans and animals, causing Toxoplasmosis.
Haptoglobin is a protein circulating in plasma, which has the task of binding the hemoglobin circulating in the serum and conveying it to the monocyte-macrophage system for its degradation.
Urinary sodium is a type of test that measures how much sodium (Na) is eliminated in the urine over a certain period of time. It is a useful test to understand the nature of alterations in the quantity of mineral salts and liquids in our body, as in hypernatremia (excess sodium in the blood) ...
Islet Cell Antibody (ICA) antibodies, also called pancreatic islet cell antibodies, are autoantibodies that target islet cell antigens in the pancreas.
Anti-cysticercosis antibodies are antibodies directed against antigens of parasitic worms called Tapeworms, (or more correctly Taenia), belonging to the phylum Platelminti, class Cestoda.
Androstenediol is a sex steroid hormone and is involved in the development and maintenance of the characteristics of the male organism. Androstenediol is therefore an androgen hormone, and in particular represents the amount of androgens active at the peripheral level (testosterone which is transformed into dehydrotestosterone), metabolized in sensitive tissues in ...
Anti Chlamydia antibodies are antibodies targeting antigens derived from the Chlamydia bacterium.
Herpes Virus 6 (HHV-6) antibodies are antibodies targeting the Herpes Virus type 6, responsible for the sixth disease.
Anti-ganglioside antibodies are antibodies aimed at some proteins present in our body, the gangliosides.
Anti-Dengue antibodies are antibodies aimed at the Dengue virus, useful for the diagnosis of Dengue hemorrhagic fever.
Anti-hyaluronidase antibodies are antibodies targeting a specific family of proteins, hyaluronidases. Normally the anti hyaluronidase antibodies are present in our blood at values lower than 500 U / ml.
A high TSH is almost always indicative of hypothyroidism. The causes and symptoms of high TSH are explained in this article. TSH (thyrotropin or thyrotropic hormone) is a substance produced by the anterior part of the pituitary gland, the adenohypophysis. It is the fundamental hormone that regulates the functionality and efficiency of the thyroid, ...
Coxiella burnetii, commonly called Coxiella, is a gram negative bacterium responsible for Q fever, which is transmitted by ticks and can be transmitted by both domestic and farm animals, as well as wild animals. Diagnosis is made by measuring the anti-Coxiella antibodies. Contagion in humans ...
Anti-Sm antibodies, or anti-Smith antibodies, are autoantibodies, i.e. antibodies that instead of targeting antigens external to our body, are directed towards our own body.
Antibodies to native DNA are autoantibodies, ie antibodies that affect structures of our organism. The most common anti-native DNA antibodies are double-stranded DNA antibodies (anti double-strain DNA or anti ds-DNA) and single-stranded DNA antibodies (anti single strain DNA or ...
Antibodies to native DNA are antibodies directed against the DNA helix. The most common antibodies to native DNA are double-stranded DNA antibodies (anti double-strain DNA or anti ds-DNA) and anti-single-stranded DNA antibodies (anti single strain DNA or anti ss-DNA).
Plasmin is a proteolytic enzyme, which belongs to the family of hydrolases, proteins capable of degrading other protein substances in the blood.
Anti-mumps antibodies are antibodies, measurable in the blood, which are used to make a diagnosis of mumps.
Catecholamines are very important substances for our body, participating in the transmission of nerve impulses and being responsible for the "fight or flight" mechanism.
TNF - TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR TNF is a cytokine (a type of acute phase protein) that comes into play during the inflammatory processes of our body. Tumor Necrosis Factor is also a glycoprotein as an oligosaccharide residue is linked to the classic protein structure of amino acids ...
Each kidney is made up of over a million small units called nephrons, with two main structures: the glomerulus and the renal tubule. The glomerulus is made up of a dense network of capillaries wrapped in Bowman's capsule, and is the part of the nephron responsible for "filtering the blood" ....
Measurement of blood cortisol levels (cortisolemia) may be helpful in diagnosing conditions of excess cortisol (high cortisol or hypercortisolism) and cortisol deficiency (low cortisol or hypocortisolism). It is important to underline that the dosage of cortisolemia is indicated only in patients in whom the probability of ...
Antibodies to TSH receptors, also called anti TSH, anti rTSH, anti TSHR, TrAb or TSH ab, are auto antibodies targeting the receptor that binds thyrotropin (TSH). They are very common in autoimmune thyroid diseases such as Basedow-Graves disease, and are divided into stimulated antibodies and ...
Calcitonin is a hormone normally produced by parafollicular cells of the thyroid, also called C cells. Calcitonin is used as a tumor marker as it is altered in the presence of medullary thyroid carcinoma, which is a tumor that originates precisely the C cells of the thyroid.
Anti-thyroglobulin antibodies, also called anti-tgb, TgAb, anti-htg or anti-tg antibodies, are antibodies directed against thyroglobulin, a precursor of thyroid hormones. Thyroglobulin antibodies belong to the group of thyroid autoantibodies or thyroid antibodies, together with thyroid peroxidase antibodies and antibodies ...
Anemia is a condition characterized by a reduced amount of hemoglobin in the circulating blood. this can happen because the erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the blood have decreased, or because they contain a reduced amount of hemoglobin. Anemia is therefore characterized by low hemoglobin.
TSH - thyrotropin TSH, also called thyrotropin, thyrotropic hormone or thyroid stimulating hormone, is a substance produced by the pituitary gland. From the TSH values you can guess how the thyroid works: in fact, TSH is the main regulator of the two thyroid hormones: T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine).
Triiodothyronine (T3) is a hormone produced in part by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland, and in part synthesized in the peripheral body tissues starting from the other thyroid hormone, thyroxine (T4). Triiodothyronine, a molecule characterized by 3 iodine units, circulates in the blood linked to specific plasma proteins, ...
ESR is a blood test that evaluates the sedimentation rate of erythrocytes. The acronym VES in fact indicates Erythro Sedimentation Rate, that is the speed that red blood cells use to deposit on the bottom of a special test tube. ESR is an inflammatory index of low specificity.
The C reactive protein or PCR (CRP from English C Reactive Protein) is an acute phase protein, and is synthesized by our body during an inflammatory state. Analysis of the C reactive protein is then done to look for the presence of inflammation.
Thyroid thyroid peroxidase antibodies (anti TPO or ab TPO antibodies) are autoantibodies, i.e. antibodies directed against our body, in this case against the thyroid peroxidase enzyme or thyroid peroxidase.
Thyroglobulin (Tgb or Tg) is a glycoprotein that is produced by thyroid cells, and is a precursor substance for the synthesis of the hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It is used, like calcitonin, as a tumor marker for thyroid cancer.
Thyroxine (T4), is the main hormone of the thyroid gland, which is produced thanks to the stimulating action of TSH (thyrotropic hormone or thyrotropin) produced by the pituitary. Thyroxine travels in the blood bound to specific proteins, and only a small part, free thyroxine (fT4) circulates in the blood not bound to proteins. There...
Triiodothyronine (T3) is a hormone produced in part by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland, and in part synthesized in the peripheral body tissues starting from the other thyroid hormone, thyroxine (T4). Triiodothyronine, a molecule characterized by 3 iodine units, circulates in the blood linked to specific plasma proteins, ...
Thyroxine (T4) is the main hormone produced by the thyroid gland, following the stimulation of the thyrotropin hormone or THS. Thyroxine travels in the blood bound to specific proteins, and only a small part, free thyroxine (fT4) circulates in the blood not bound to proteins. But free thyroxine is ...
TSH is a hormone produced by the pituitary gland, it can also be called thyrotropin, thyrotropic hormone or thyroid stimulating hormone. The analysis of TSH values allows us to understand how the thyroid gland is functioning. Low TSH is often linked to increased thyroid hormone levels with symptoms of hyperthyroidism.
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